Persuasive Technology for Healthy Living

Abstract

1. Changing unhealthy lifestyle habits and promoting healthier lifestyle choices can have a positive impact on quality of life and healthcare costs.
2. Lifestyle habits under consideration for study include teen smoking and drinking, obesity, AIDS, and alcoholism.
3. This paper will study techniques for using persuasive technologies and interaction design to encourage behavioral changes via photo and web-based novellas.

Keywords

Persuasive technology, design, health novellas, goal setting, design theory

Introduction

Lifestyle choices can impact, or even create, chronic health conditions. According to the CDC’s report on obesity among adults:

“Obesity is associated with increased risk of a number of conditions, including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and certain cancers, and with increased risk of disability and a modestly elevated risk of all-cause mortality. Although obesity is a consequence of complex factors including an increase in the consumption of calories and a decrease in physical activity, the prevalence of obesity is influenced by environmental factors. ”

US Centers for Disease Control

Each year, the CDC estimates that seven in 10, or 1.7 million, people who die annually will die from a chronic disease . In 2005, the CDC reported that treatment of chronic health conditions accounts for “75% of the nation’s $2 trillion medical care costs. ” Not only do chronic conditions increase healthcare costs but they can also impact patients’ ability to performance everyday tasks at home and at work. Healthcare providers are challenged with finding ways to complement treatment with changes to lifestyle habits: habits that may go all the way back to childhood.

Prior Literature Review on Persuasive Technology

De Bourdeaudhuji et al. note that prior to their 2007 paper, previous studies had shown that computer-tailored intervention had a positive effect on awareness and motivation but failed to produce desired changes in health habits. The goal of their study was to confirm positive efficacy results from a controlled study in a real-world setting with participants grouped into three categories: tailored intervention, generic intervention, and no intervention. Their results showed that computer tailored intervention had a significant impact on participants efforts to reduce fat intake both for those who were above the 30% fat intake level at baseline as well as those who were below. They found that no intervention and generic intervention were not as effective, and even led to increased fat intake in some cases. The author’s go on to make the assumption “that the tailored intervention especially worked because the participants got a lot of specific knowledge about the fat content of their usual diet and suggestions to replace or change high fat products by lower fat alternatives (De Bourdeaudhuji et al. 2007).

Consolvo et al. (2009) conducted a 3-month field study of the UbiFit system to determine which goal sources and goal timeframes were best received by participants. Their findings indicated that participants had a preference for tailored self-set goals and goals set in collaboration with a fitness expert. General guidelines and medical expert advice were not as well received. Using a weekly timeframe that started on Monday was well received and the author’s note that users should be allowed to select any weekly start they wish. Less active people seemed to like weekly settings that made their positive feedback (in this case flowers) last longer hence, more study is recommended by the author’s to determine if different timeframes other than weekly might work best for low activity participants.

Cullen et al. (2008) state that increasing access to the Internet and broadband access across all ethnic groups provides opportunities for using web-based intervention strategies, but little work has been done to study the specific cultural and social factors that influence dietary choices in African-American families. The focus on their 8-week study was to observe log on rates, and investigate changes in mediating factors to behavior change. The results show that they were not able to achieve their target log on rate of 80%, which the authors point out is in line with declining log on trends seen in previous studies, and suggests the need for greater focus on motivation, relevant content, and usability. However, positive changes in the following mediating factors were observed: “mother-reported self-efficacy for menu planning, self-efficacy for FV availability, modifying meat-fat practices, substitution-fat practices, and healthy restaurant selection”; and daughter-reported “increased parent modeling of eating both fruit and vegetables” (Cullen et al. 2008). Cullen et al. confirm that “changing the mediating variables is a necessary step for change in the targeted behaviors,” and that “these results suggest that the Internet program with the photo novella and home activities could be a potentially important channel for behavior change programs.”

In their paper surveying exemplars of persuasive technology, Chatterjee et al. (2009) seek to “provide greater understanding by addressing the challenges that lie ahead for all key stakeholders that design and/or use persuasive technologies in health care.” Chatterjee et al. (2009) present a view of persuasive technology as proposed by Fogg (2003): “persuasive technology [is] any interactive computing system designed to change people’s attitudes and/or behavior,” and that “interactive computing technologies can play three roles:…[they] can be persuasive by making target behavior easier,…by allowing people to explore cause-and-effect relationships…[and] by rewarding people with positive feedback.”

The goal of Zhu et al (2007) was to review previous physical activity promotion studies and compare them against the captology model. Zhu et al. (2007) recommend that to increase physical activity, persuasive technology systems should “employ more functions of PT [persuasive technology] in designing more effective web intervention and determine related human-interaction.” “In summary, although internet has been shown a useful meaning in behavioral changes in other areas, such as weight control and fruit and vegetable consumption, identified studies have not shown the effectiveness of internet based invention in promoting PA. Designing Internet invention based on the framework of captology and determining key persuasive strategies that are useful for promoting PA at large scale should be the future research focus” (Zhu et al. 2007).

Sorri et al. (2007) conducted a small focus group study to determine what utility the elderly wish to gain from technology and what factors influence their decision to utilize technology. As the author’s point out, this was a qualitative and descriptive study and hence did not include a great deal of rigor. Sorri et al. (2007) found that the elderly were interested in technology’s capabilities for “support of safety, independency, memory, health and physical exercise” and that they preferred embedded technologies in existing devices to new devices. Several factors influenced their adoption of persuasive technology including usability and ergonomics and well as psychological and physical factors including depression, tiredness, and decreasing cognitive ability of the user or their spouse.  

Kraft et al. (2008) present 18 design decision propositions that should be considered when developing technology-based interventions. Design related propositions for consideration include: psychological processes and chronology involved in motivation and self-regulation, facilitating implementation intention, preventing relapse and relapse proneness, addressing the impact of ego depletion and negative affect. Content related propositions include: increasing interactivity, producing an emotional impact, and holding the user’s interest. The author’s note that both design and content along with cutting edge psychology theory and research are key to designing effective intervention technologies.

Using participants at several employer locations in the Netherlands, Oenema et al. (2005) wanted to evaluate “(a)…the short-term impact of a Web-based computer-tailored nutrition education program that aims to encourage people to modify their saturated fat, fruit, and vegetable intakes and (b) to study whether perceived personal relevance, perceived individualization, and perceived interestingness of the information mediate the effects of the tailored intervention.” While “tailored intervention was rated as more interesting, personally relevant, individualized, and new than the generic nutrition information…the generic information on fruit and vegetables was rated as being more credible than the tailored information” (Oenema et al. 2005). However, the authors note that the impact was more prevalent on determinants but not so much on actual intake of fats, fruits, and vegetables observed were modest at best. They also note that while the Internet offers several advantages including immediacy, reach and interactivity, print may be easier to read in detail and offers a more consistent presentation as it’s not impacted by hardware and software constraints on participant computers.             

Through a discussion of prior literature, Grimes et al. (2007) proposes combining analysis and sensitivity of how dietary habits are tied into cultural aspects norms , theories of health behavior, and social psychological theories of persuasion when designing computer-based interventions to promote healthy habits among the African-American community which suffers disproportionately from several diet-related diseases including obesity and diabetes.

James et al. (2005) presented a photo-novella called Laduma to a group of secondary school students in South Africa to determine the impact it had on knowledge awareness and behavior change regarding safe sex practices, communication and empathy towards those with HIV/AIDS. The results indicated that over the course of the six week study, participants awareness of transmission, positive attitude toward condom use, and sensitivity toward HIV/AIDS patients increased. However, condom use and communication with peers, family and significant others did not show significant increase as a result of Laduma though there was an increased intention to use condoms over the course of the following year. The author’s note the need for holistic programs that also address issues of self-confidence and self-regulation in order to effectively promote healthy behavior choices in preventing HIV/AIDS infection.

Maheshwari et al. (2008) discuss the impact of source and message on the persuasiveness of messages intended to promote healthy behaviors through computer-mediated interventions. “The study found that the participants did not consider the messages on cell phones as credible as the phone calls from healthcare experts” (Maheshwari et al. 2008). The results also indicated that “the content of “just-in-time” motivational messages should not include negative enforcement and complex activity suggestions” but that this “poses a challenge as physical activities often require substantial effort” (Maheshwari et al. 2008).

Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) present three elements of the persuasion context that must be taken into account when designing persuasive technology: the intent of the persuasion, understanding the persuasion event, and defining and/or recognizing the strategies in use. Providing users with persuasive technology that encourages them “to set goals and to discover ways for achieving them in [a] systematic and effective way” is highlighted as a key component of good persuasive systems (Oinas-Kukkonen et al. 2009). At a high-level, indirect processes like visual queues and less rich media will be used to trigger heuristics that drive initial behavior (Oinas-Kukkonen et al. 2009). However, indirect processes must also be accompanied by direct processes when a more careful evaluation of the intent and event are required before the user can move forward (Oinas-Kukkonen et al. 2009).

Marcus et al. (1998) discusses theories that can be directly applied to mass-reach and mass-media based interventions including the social marketing model, social cognitive theory, and the transtheoretical model. Of the 28 studies reviewed, 16 utilized a media-based intervention in combination with face-to-face counseling and 12 entailed no face-to-face contact. The use of mass media appeared to be successful in promoting awareness and interest in exercising, but had not been successful in actually changing exercise behavior. The ability of these campaigns to influence physical activity behavior remains debatable, and using strategies to target segments of the population increases the efficacy of the intervention. The authors also note that leveraging theories that recognize different levels of motivation to guide the design of tailored interventions because messages targeted at contemplators will not reach the larger audience as the general population is largely sedentary and unmotivated to exercise.

Persuasive Technology

The Persuasion Context

Chatterjee et al. (2009) present a view of persuasive technology as proposed by Fogg (2003): “persuasive technology [is] any interactive computing system designed to change people’s attitudes and/or behavior,” and that “interactive computing technologies can play three roles:…[they] can be persuasive by making target behavior easier,…by allowing people to explore cause-and-effect relationships…[and] by rewarding people with positive feedback.”

Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) present three elements of the persuasion context that must be taken into account when designing persuasive technology: the intent of the persuasion, understanding the persuasion event, and defining and/or recognizing the strategies in use. The full view of the phases of persuasive systems development as proposed by Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) is presented in the figure below. An initial analysis of the persuasion context as it relates to OneIT is outlined here as well.

The Intent

The persuasion intent for both personas can be summarized as such: The goal is to show personas the true TCO of their application portfolio, including qualitative and quantitative metrics, and then persuade them to set goals and take actions that lead to better TCO by increasing funding and support for design. The primary source of intent for OneIT will be exogenous, which is defined by Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) as “those who give access to or distribute the interactive technology to others.”

For OneIT to be effective it must be used by the entire IT organization and this requires open support and encouragement from leadership to drive consistent usage. The goal is to achieve behavior change but with the understanding that underlying attitudes often steeped in old IT methods (waterfall; developer plays all project roles), old technology (specific technology is in the dated or obsolete stages of maturity), or old ways of thinking (enhancing old systems has better ROI than rebuilding) heavily influence current behaviors.

We agree with the authors that changing previous attitudes and effecting permanent behavior change increase the difficult of implementing persuasive technology and effecting behavioral change. However, our initial analysis of the environment suggests OneIT must be able to drive user intentions toward permanent behavior and attitude change in order to be successful. 

The Persuasive Event

Providing users with persuasive technology that encourages them “to set goals and to discover ways for achieving them in [a] systematic and effective way” is highlighted as a key component of good persuasive systems (Oinas-Kukkonen et al. 2009). In OneIT, leadership would set organizational goals in the system and all IT teams would be expected to set their own goals relative to IT leadership goals and those of their business partners. We have outlined them in Table 1: Persuasive Intent for Leadership and Application Delivery Teams. We focus our analysis here on the persuasive intent and event. The persuasive strategy will be defined during detailed design of OneIT.

Design Considerations

Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) propose four categories of principles for consideration when designing persuasive technology: primary task, dialogue, system credibility, and social support. While OneIT will provide all users access to the same overall functions, the specific data and persuasive context elements will change based on goals and objectives of the general persona, team, and individual employee. The tables below included the principles and definitions proposed by Oinas-Kukkonen et al. (2009) and how these might be implemented for OneIT.

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Primary Task Support

Principle	Description
Reduction	A system that reduces complex behavior into simple tasks helps users perform the target behavior, and it may increase the benefit/cost ratio of a behavior.
Tunneling	Using the system to guide users through a process or experience provides opportunities to persuade along the way.
Tailoring	Information provided by the system will be more persuasive if it is tailored to the potential needs, interests, personality, usage context, or other factors relevant to a user group.
Personalization	A system that offers personalized content or services has a greater capability for persuasion.
Self-Monitoring	A system that keeps track of one’s own performance or status supports the user in achieving goals.
Simulation	Systems that provide simulations can persuade by enabling users to observe immediately the link between cause and effect.
Rehearsal	A system providing means with which to rehearse a behavior can enable people to change their attitudes or behavior in the real world.

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Dialog Support

Principle	Description
Praise	By offering praise, a system can make users more open to persuasion.
Rewards	Systems that reward target behaviors may have great persuasive powers.
Reminders	If a system reminds users of their target behavior, the users will more likely achieve their goals.
Suggestion	Systems offering fitting suggestions will have greater persuasive powers.
Similarity	People are more readily persuaded through systems that remind them of themselves in some meaningful way.
Liking	A system that is visually attractive for its users is likely to be more persuasive.
Social Role	If a system adopts a social role, users will more likely use it for persuasive purposes.

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System Credibility Support

Principle	Description
Trustworthiness	A system that is viewed as trustworthy will have increased powers of persuasion.
Expertise	A system that is viewed as incorporating expertise will have increased powers of persuasion.
Surface credibility	People make initial assessments of the system credibility based on a firsthand inspection.
Real-world feel	A system that highlights people or organization behind its content or services will have more credibility.
Authority	A system that leverages roles of authority will have enhanced powers of persuasion.
Third-party endorsements	Third-party endorsements, especially from well-known and respected sources, boost perceptions on system credibility.
Verifiability	Credibility perceptions will be enhanced if a system makes it easy to verify the accuracy of site content via outside sources.

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Social Support

Principle	Description
Social learning	A person will be more motivated to perform a target behavior if (s)he can use a system to observe others performing the behavior.
Social comparison	System users will have a greater motivation to perform the target behavior if they can compare their performance with the performance of others.
Normative influence	A system can leverage normative influence or peer pressure to increase the likelihood that a person will adopt a target behavior.
Social facilitation	System users are more likely to perform target behavior if they discern via the system that others are performing the behavior along with them.
Cooperation	A system can motivate users to adopt a target attitude or behavior by leveraging human beings’ natural drive to co-operate.
Competition	A system can motivate users to adopt a target attitude or behavior by leveraging human beings’ natural drive to compete.
Recognition	By offering public recognition for an individual or group, a system can increase the likelihood that a person/group will adopt a target behavior.

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Design Theory

While the building of design theory has proven challenging for IS researchers, some progress has been made in the field in terms of how to conduct design science research. We will review how OneIT design can be informed by the design science research methodology (DSRM) proposed by Peffers et al. (2008), and the design-science research guidelines proposed by Hevner et al. (2004).

Peffers et al. (2008) reviewed existing literature and published a paper related to the development of design science research methodology. The authors provide the following definition of design science research:

“‘Design science…creates and evaluates IT artifacts intended to solve identified organizational problems.’ It involves a rigorous process to design artifacts to solve observed problems, to make research contributions, to evaluate the designs, and to communicate the results to appropriate audiences. Such artifacts may include constructs, models, methods, and instantiations. They may also include social innovations or new properties of technical, social, or informational resources; in short, this definition includes any designed object with an embedded solution to an understood research problem.”

Peffers et al. 2008

Hevner et al. (2004) propose that for “the design-science paradigm, knowledge and understanding of a problem domain and its solution are achieved in the building and application of the designed artifact.” To facilitate Hevner et al.’s proposal, they present seven guidelines aimed at “[informing] the community of IS researchers and practitioners of how to conduct, evaluate, and present design-science research:”

• Guideline 1: Design as an artifact
• Guideline 2: Problem relevance
• Guideline 3: Design evaluation
• Guideline 4: Research contributions
• Guideline 5: Research rigor
• Guideline 6: Design as a search process
• Guideline 7: Communication of research.

We include the guidelines and descriptions presented by the authors in their 2004 paper along with an analysis of how these guidelines would apply to OneIT implementation as IT artifact.

Design Science Research Guidelines

Guideline	Description
Guideline 1: Design as an Artifact	Design-science research must produce a viable artifact in the form of a construct, a model, a method, or an instantiation.
Guideline 2: Problem Relevance	Guideline 2: Problem Relevance The objective of design-science research is to develop technology-based solutions to important and relevant business problems.
Guideline 3: Design Evaluation	The utility, quality, and efficacy of a design artifact must be rigorously demonstrated via well-executed evaluation methods.
Guideline 4: Research Contributions	Effective design-science research must provide clear and verifiable contributions in the areas of the design artifact, design foundations, and/or design methodologies.
Guideline 5: Research Rigor	Design-science research relies upon the application of rigorous methods in both the construction and evaluation of the design artifact.
Guideline 6: Design as a Search Process	The search for an effective artifact requires utilizing available means to reach desired ends while satisfying laws in the problem environment.
Guideline 7: Communication of Research	Design-science research must be presented effectively both to technology-oriented as well as management-oriented audiences.

Media Richness Theory

We proposed earlier that leadership would need to openly support and encourage the use of OneIT in order for it to be successful. While this is important, a business mandate does not exempt the system from adopting good design principles. One of those principles is to ensure that the media and presentation are a fit for the users needs in order to ensure appropriation and adoption (Dennis et al. 2008). This will be accomplished by leveraging a combination of media (the system itself, email alerts, success stories in team newsletters, etc.) to achieve maximum benefit (Shahriza et al. 2005; Watson-Manheim and Belanger 2007).

Ethnographic interviews will be invaluable for providing a better understanding of “the nature of the individuals and the context in which they will work, as this may suggest differing requirements for media capabilities” (Dennis et al. 2008).

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

Ventatesh et al. (2003) proposed a unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) that brought together constructs from various existing theories. UTAUT seeks to address the issue researchers often face where they are compelled to select a limited theory or construct set to define their research. This results in the loss of insight that can inform their research and analysis since otherwise valuable constructs from different theories may be omitted (Venkatesh et al., 2003).

Venkatesh et al. (2003) highlights four out of the seven constructs that were deemed to be significant determinants of user acceptance and usage behavior: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions.

The ethnographic interviews and requirements analysis will provide deeper insights into how each of these constructs will be impacted by various environmental factors, and how the design will need to respond to those factors.

Theory of Goal Setting

The Locke et al. (2002) theory of goal setting is “based on Ryan’s (1970) premise that conscious goals affect action” and that “a goal is the object or aim of an action…usually within a specified time limit.” Goal setting theory was created as part of their effort “to predict, explain, and influence performance on organization or work-related tasks” (Locke et al. 2002).

Based on their review of previous literature, Locke et al. (2002) state that “the goal–performance relationship is strongest when people are committed to their goals” and that “commitment is most important and relevant when goals are difficult… because goals that are difficult for people require high effort and are associated with lower chances of success than easy goals.” We discuss here several constructs of Locke et al.’s theory of goal setting that are especially relevant for the novella site.

First, is the construct of goal importance that focuses on “[convincing] people that goal attainment is important,” and proposes “making a public commitment to the goal enhances commitment, presumably because it makes one’s actions a matter of integrity in one’s own eyes and in those of others” (Locke et al. 2002).  Locke also proposes an alternative to imposed goals which is “to allow subordinates to participate in setting them” based on the theory that “this would make goals more important to the person because one would, at least in part, own the goals.” The novella site would reinforce the construct of goal importance by providing teams and individuals with the ability to simulate cause-effect scenarios, analyze spatial (graphical) and discrete (tabular) data, and set their own goals that can either stand-alone or link to organizational goals.

Second, is the construct of self-efficacy, which “enhances goal commitment” (Locke et al. 2002). In their review of previous literature from Bandura (1997) and White et al. (2000), Locke et al. (2002) goes on to state that “leaders can raise the self-efficacy of their subordinates (a) by ensuring adequate training to increase mastery that provides success experiences, (b) by role modeling or finding models with whom the person can identify, and (c) through persuasive communication that expresses confidence that the person can attain the goal.” OneIT would enable leadership to increase self-efficacy by commenting on success stories, communicating regularly about OneIT related activities and highlights, and providing other “inspiring messages” and “cognitive stimulation” (Locke et al. 2002).

Third, is the construct of feedback that says “for goals to be effective, people need summary feedback that reveals progress in relation to their goals” because “if they do not know how they are doing, it is difficult or impossible for them to adjust the level or direction of their effort or to adjust their performance strategies to match what the goal requires” (Locke et al. 2002). The novella site would accomplish this by providing functionality for graphical summary of their progress; system and user generated comments; mentoring and coaching; and peer as well as leadership feedback to support the need for feedback as an integral part of effective goal setting and accomplishment (Locke et al. 2002).

Last is the construct of task complexity, which proposes that as task complexity increases, “goal effects are dependent on the ability to discover appropriate task strategies,” and “because people use a greater variety of strategies on tasks that are complex than on tasks that are easy, measures of task strategy often correlate more highly with performance than do measures of goal difficulty” (Locke et al. 2002). Locke et al. (2002) also goes on to state “proximal feedback regarding errors can yield information for people about whether their picture of reality is aligned with what is required to attain their goal.” The novella site would enable users to set goals, manage their task strategy, and also utilized the communal framework to observe how others have formulated effective task strategies to accomplish similar goals. The novella site would also enable automated as well as human-moderated feedback loop to ensure that goals match what can realistically be accomplished.

Locke et al. (2002) list a set of factors that can lead to goal failure:

• “not matching the goal to the performance measure,
• “not providing feedback,
• “not getting goal commitment,
• “not measuring the person’s personal (self-set) goals,
• “not conveying task knowledge,
• “setting a performance goal when a specific high-learning goal is required,
• “not setting proximal goals when the environment is characterized by uncertainty, or
• “not including a sufficient range of goal difficulty levels (see Locke & Latham, 1990, chapter 2).”

These potential failures would need to be mediated using a combination of good visual design that promotes stickiness, a well-evaluated selection of persuasive events, storylines and subsequent goals that are perceived as relevant to the participant community.

Additional Theories for Consideration

Time has not permitted for a thorough analysis of all relevant IS theories for this proposal, however, we list here additional theories for further review that have potential to inform the structure of the research project, and the design and evaluation of the IT artifact:

• Delone and McLean IS success model
• Information processing theory
• Diffusion of innovations theory
• Communication theory
• Decision theory.

Project Proposal and Evaluation Criteria

The proposed project is to build a working prototype in the form of web-based novellas. The goal is to expand on the success of previous studies using print-based novellas but with an emphasis on a younger demographic that we believe has access to web technology at home or at school.

Prior interventions have shown efficacy related to increased awareness and intention. However, researchers in prior studies have been unable to measure significant changes in behavior. We believe there is a high likelihood that we will observe the same phenomena. However, the proposed study will still attempt to measure the efficacy of awareness and intention as well as behavior change. The following is a summary of the design aspects to be evaluated:

We will leverage the guidelines presented by Hevner et al. for evaluating the IT artifact which will be the web-based novellas. Hevner et al. (2004) state, “The utility, quality, and efficacy of a design artifact must be rigorously demonstrated via well-executed evaluation methods.” Hevner et al. (2004) also point out the following about evaluation metrics:

“The business environment establishes the requirements upon which the evaluation of the artifact is based. This environment includes the technical infrastructure which itself is incrementally built by the implementation of new IT artifacts. Thus, evaluation includes the integration of the artifact within the technical infrastructure of the business environment.”

Hevner et al. (2004)

The design evaluation methods and their descriptions are listed in Table 7: Design Evaluation Methods.

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Method	Description
Observational	Case Study: Study artifact in depth in business environment Field Study: Monitor use of artifact in multiple projects
Analytical	Static Analysis: Examine structure of artifact for static qualities (e.g., complexity) Architecture Analysis: Study fit of artifact into technical IS architecture Optimization: Demonstrate inherent optimal properties of artifact or provide optimality bounds on artifact behavior Dynamic Analysis: Study artifact in use for dynamic qualities (e.g., performance)
Experimental	Controlled Experiment: Study artifact in controlled environment for qualities (e.g., usability) Simulation: Execute artifact with artificial data
Testing	Functional (Black Box) Testing: Execute artifact interfaces to discover failures and identify defects Structural (White Box) Testing: Perform coverage testing of some metric (e.g., execution paths) in the artifact implementation
Descriptive	Informed Argument: Use information from the knowledge base (e.g., relevant research) to build a convincing argument for the artifact’s utility Scenarios: Construct detailed scenarios around the artifact to demonstrate its utility

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Article References